The Rector's Stand on Moral Issues

For the Christian, virtue comes from God's character, so moral rules and principles are those consistent with the outworking of God's virtue known in Holy Scripture.

TOPICS
 

ETHICS	HUMAN SANCTITY	JUSTICE	SECULAR ETHICS
PATRIOTISM	WORSHIP	RELIGION	ENVIRONMENT
WELFARE & FAMILY	LAW & JUSTICE	SEXUALITY	EDUCATION
MEDIA

ETHICS                    TOP

Definition: Ethics is a very broad subject and it refers to the principles that define behavior.
   Biblical ethics refers to the principles that define behavior that conforms to the will of God in Holy Scripture.
   Specifically, ethics is the branch of axiology – one of the four major branches of philosophy, alongside metaphysics, epistemology, and logic – which attempts to understand the nature of morality; to define that which is right from that which is wrong. The Western tradition of ethics is sometimes called moral philosophy.
   The terms 'ethics' and 'values' are not interchangeable. Ethics is concerned with 'how' a person, institution, etc. should behave, whereas values are the inner judgments that determine how that person, institution, etc. 'actually' behaves.
   Making decisions always involves ethics and ethics requires sensitivity to implications of choices - the ability to evaluate sometimes complex, ambiguous and incomplete facts, and the skill to implement ethical choices.
   It requires a framework of principles that are reliable and a procedure (model) for applying them to life. The study of ethics is a flexible discipline because it implies that a Christian is growing and therefore changing as one learns from life, history, theology, philosophy, and other disciplines.
Character: There are six pillars to character. They are trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, and citizenship.
   The elements of trustworthiness are honesty, reliability, and loyalty.
   The elements of respect are civility, courtesy, decency, dignity, autonomy, tolerance, and acceptance.
   The elements of responsibility are accountability, pursuit of excellence, and self-restraint.
   The elements of fairness are being able and willing to process, impartiality, and equity.
   The elements of caring are empathy and benevolence.
   The elements of citizenship are civic virtues and duties.
   Please visit the Josephson Institute of Ethics or Character Counts.
 

HUMAN SANCTITY & MEDICINE                  TOP

Abortion: The following constitutes the Episcopal Church's position on abortion - (emphasis is mine)

Resolution Number: 1994-A054
Title: Reaffirm General Convention Statement on Childbirth and Abortion
Source: General Convention, Journal of the General Convention of...The Episcopal Church, Indianapolis, 1994 (New York: General Convention, 1995), pp. 323-25.

Resolved, the House of Bishops concurring, That this 71st General Convention of the Episcopal Church reaffirms resolution C047 from the 69th General Convention, which states: All human life is sacred from its inception until death. The Church takes seriously its obligation to help form the consciences of its members concerning this sacredness. Human life, therefore, should be initiated only advisedly and in full accord with this understanding of the power to conceive and give birth which is bestowed by God. It is the responsibility of our congregations to assist their members in becoming informed concerning the spiritual and physiological aspects of sex and sexuality.

The Book of Common Prayer affirms that "the birth of a child is a joyous and solemn occasion in the life of a family. It is also an occasion for rejoicing in the Christian community" (p. 440). As Christians we also affirm responsible family planning.

We regard all abortion as having a tragic dimension, calling for the concern and compassion of all the Christian community.

While we acknowledge that in this country it is the legal right of every woman to have a medically safe abortion, as Christians we believe strongly that if this right is exercised, it should be used only in extreme situations. We emphatically oppose abortion as a means of birth control, family planning, sex selection, or any reason of mere convenience.

In those cases where an abortion is being considered, members of this Church are urged to seek the dictates of their conscience in prayer, to seek the advice and counsel of members of the Christian community and where appropriate, the sacramental life of this Church.

Whenever members of this Church are consulted with regard to a problem pregnancy, they are to explore, with grave seriousness, with the person or persons seeking advice and counsel, as alternatives to abortion, other positive courses of action, including, but not limited to, the following possibilities: the parents raising the child; another family member raising the child; making the child available for adoption.

It is the responsibility of members of this Church, especially the clergy, to become aware of local agencies and resources which will assist those faced with problem pregnancies.

We believe that legislation concerning abortions will not address the root of the problem. We therefore express our deep conviction that any proposed legislation on the part of national or state governments regarding abortions must take special care to see that the individual conscience is respected, and that the responsibility of individuals to reach informed decisions in this matter is acknowledged and honored as the position of this Church; and be it further
Resolved, That this 71st General Convention of the Episcopal Church express its unequivocal opposition to any legislative, executive or judicial action on the part of local, state or national governments that abridges the right of a woman to reach an informed decision about the termination of pregnancy or that would limit the access of a woman to safe means of acting on her decision.

This decision is now supplemented by a vote by the Executive Council of the Episcopal Church taken during the January 9-12, 2006 meeting in Des Moines, Iowa, in which they approved the Episcopal Church's membership in the Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice (RCRC). This organization's literature states its "primary role is educating the public to make clear that abortion can be a moral, ethical, and religiously responsible decision." Source: The Living Church Foundation, 1/20/2006

The above national resolution (1994) and the recent decision (2006) of the Executive Council exacerbates division in the Episcopal Church. It is "double speak" and points to the relaxing of ethical values by legislating Anglican morality.

Natalie E Roche, MD, Assistant Professor, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, wrote the following for eMedicine, September 28, 2004:

   “Termination of pregnancy has been practiced since ancient times and by all cultures. The indications and social context for termination of pregnancy vary with culture and time.
   The use of abortion to preserve the life of the mother has been widely accepted. Early Jewish scholars' interpretation of the Talmud required that the fetus be destroyed if it posed a threat to the mother during delivery. The ancient Greeks allowed abortion under certain circumstances. Ancient Romans did not consider a fetus a person until after birth, and abortion was practiced widely. Early Christians had varying practices regarding abortion. By 1869, the Catholic church declared abortion a sin punishable by excommunication.
   In the United States, legislation regarding abortion has varied with the times. Before 1800, no statutes addressed the subject of abortion. The first antiabortion legislation appeared in the 1820’s; the preservation of pregnant women's health was the motivating force. During this time, the mortality rate from abortion was high, while the mortality rate from childbirth was less than 3%. By 1900, abortion in the United States at any time during pregnancy was a crime, with the exception of therapeutic abortion performed to save the mother's life.
   During the 1950's, the practice of medicine came under increasing scrutiny, and guidelines were set to define the indications for therapeutic abortion. The guidelines allowed therapeutic abortion if (1) pregnancy would "gravely impair the physical and mental health of the mother," (2) the child born was likely to have "grave physical and mental defects," or (3) the pregnancy was the result of rape or incest (Mcfarlane, 1993). In the United States, the legalization of abortion by Roe v Wade in 1973 upheld the fundamental right of a woman to determine whether to continue her pregnancy.
   U.S. statistics indicate that the vast majority of abortions are elective. Therapeutic abortion is rare. The ability to define therapeutic abortion performed for maternal indications is difficult because of the subjective nature of decisions made about potential morbidity and mortality in pregnant women. A variety of medical conditions in pregnant women have the potential to affect health and cause complications that may be life threatening.
   Prenatal screening in the form of prenatal diagnostic screening continues to improve the antepartum diagnosis of fetal anomalies. The decision to continue or terminate a pregnancy complicated by fetal anomalies is a difficult decision. The most difficult decisions are associated with anomalies that are unpredictable or highly variable in their expression.
   The increase in the use of assisted reproductive technologies has been associated with an enormous increase in multifetal pregnancies. These pregnancies are complicated by increased fetal morbidity and mortality rates, which are largely caused by prematurity and growth retardation. Selective reduction has been introduced as a technology to improve perinatal outcomes in these pregnancies and has been successful in reducing preterm deliveries and associated morbidity and mortality.
   Patients in need of therapeutic termination of pregnancy can be identified at any gestational age; however, the consideration of therapeutic abortion is generally limited to pregnancies at 24 weeks' gestation or less. Many patients are in the second trimester of pregnancy because of the timing of fetal assessment tools (eg, amniocentesis, ultrasound).”

   There are no Christian justifications for taking the life of a baby in the womb of its mother for birth control, convenience (abortion on demand), or medical research.
   A medical abortion in a hospital may be appropriate if there is a substantial diagnosed risk that the mother might die during the pregnancy or delivery. A medical abortion may also be appropriate if the baby has a fatal condition that will not allow the child to live outside the womb of its mother.
   The decision should remain with the mother (who will be accountable to God) in accordance with her conscience and her perceived principles of Christian faith. She should have the guidance of her family, attorney, clergy, and doctors when making this decision.
Law and Right to Die - The term "right to die", also called dying with dignity, refers to various issues around the death of an individual when that person could continue to live with the aid of life support or in a diminished or enfeebled capacity.
   Most often, the idea of the right to die is related to a person's wish that caregivers allow death—for example, by not providing life support or vital medication— under certain conditions when recovery is highly unlikely or impossible. It may also refer to issues regarding physician-assisted suicide. It may be called passive euthanasia in cases where the patient is unable to make decisions about treatment. Living Wills and Do Not Resuscitate orders are legal instruments that make a patient's treatment decisions known ahead of time and allowing a patient to die based on such decisions is not considered to be euthanasia. Usually these patients have also made explicit their wish to receive only palliative care to reduce pain and suffering.
   Although specialized legal instruments differ from state to state, there is one document that is very important in this context. The Medical Durable Power of Attorney (or MDPOA) designates an agent to make decisions in case of incapacity, and can be used to give written guidance regarding end of life decision making. The MDPOA is generally considered to be the most powerful of all such instruments. All others may require interpretation on the part of health care providers or even court-appointed guardians. The MDPOA takes the job of interpretation out of the hands of strangers and gives it to a person selected and trusted by the individual.
Termination of Life Support - Life support can morally be withdrawn when a person is pronounced brain dead. Brain death is defined as a complete and irreversible cessation of brain activity. Absence of apparent brain function is not enough. Evidence of irreversibility is also required. Traditionally, death has been defined as the cessation of all body functions, including respiration and heartbeat. Since it became possible to revive some people after a period without respiration, heartbeat, or other visible signs of life, as well as to maintain respiration and blood flow artificially using life support treatments, an alternative definition for death was needed. In recent decades, the concept of "brain death" has emerged. By brain-death criteria, a person can be pronounced clinically dead even if the heart continues to beat due to life support measures.
   A brain-dead individual has no electrical activity and no clinical evidence of brain function on neurologic examination and no spontaneous respirations.
Medically Assisted Suicide - This is also called "Physician-Assisted Suicide", which is a media term. It is more accurately rendered "Doctor-Aided Dying" or "Compassionate Aid in Dying." Here the physician may actively serve as a casual agent in the patient's death by providing a medical means by which the patient can take his or her life. This is generally done through a prescription for a lethal dose of medication with the physician providing the instructions as to how much medication to ingest. It is quite uncommon and the AMA strongly opposes this. However, a poll conducted by Harris Interactive in April 2005 found that 70% of Americans believe it is moral. In 1982, just 53% agreed that it was moral. So, it is growing in popularity with the American public. In fact, 67% of Americans surveyed by the Harris poll said they would favor a law like Oregon's Death With Dignity Act in their state.
   The Oregon law, ratified by their voters in 1994 and again in 1997, requires that:
   a. Two doctors certify that the patient has no more than six months to live;
   b. Patients make three requests to the doctor for a lethal dose of medication - twice orally and once in writing.
   c. The prescription is filled only after a 15-day waiting period;
   d. Patients take the drug themselves - the prescribing doctor may not administer the drug.
   Suicide and the involvement of physicians in suicide is immoral for a Christian.
Extraordinary Medical Treatment - This area of ethics is broad because there are so many situations to which decisions are applied.
   EMT is often applied to those in PVS (Permanent Vegetative State). PVS are those who have lost all higher brain function and for whom the only part of the brain that continues to function is the brain stem, which controls the person's involuntary activities, such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion. Life support can morally be withdrawn when a physician determines there is no hope for a person to breath on their own.
   EMT is also applied when a patient has been without oxygen for an extended amount of time and a physician determines there could a very significant amount of irreversible brain damage and the patient will never enjoy a reasonable quality of life. In such instances, EMT should not be applied. In some of these instances a member or members of the person's family will insist on EMT, receive it, and the patient will live. That person or the family will then have to be responsible for the care of the patient, which can be very difficult, if not impossible. In those cases, the patient cannot live without extremely expensive state care and extra-ordinary personal and/or family care.
Living Will & DNR Order - Having a Living Will is a very good moral decision. A Living Will, also called Will to Live, Advance Health Directive, or Advance Health Care Directive, is a specific type of power of attorney or health care proxy or advance directive. It is a legal instrument that usually is witnessed or notarized. These documents state:

• That the principal is appointing an individual to direct their health care decisions should the principal be unable to do so (e.g. called "Power of Attorney for Health Care"), or
• Specific directives as to the course of treatment that is to be taken by caregivers, or, in particular, in some cases forbidding treatment and sometimes also nutrition and water, should the principal be unable to give informed consent ("Individual Health Care Instruction") due to incapacity.

As the name suggests, the Will to Live tends to emphasize the wish to live as long as possible rather than refusing treatment in the case of serious conditions.
   A DNR, or Do Not Resuscitate Order is a written directive from a person, their doctor, or someone entitled to make decisions on their behalf, that they should not be revived if they suffer cardiac arrest. This is sometimes known as a no-code order. Instead, the person wishes to have a natural death without painful or invasive medical procedures. This is usually because the person suffers from an inevitably fatal illness, and does not wish to prolong the suffering. The DNR order came into being in the U.S. in the 1960s when defibrillation allowed the reversal of cardiac arrest, but this may prolong the life of the patient for only a short time. In the U.S., cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) should not be performed if a valid written "DNR" order is present. In any cases of doubt, emergency medical technicians, paramedics and other medical workers will perform as if a DNR order did not exist, as is required by law. For the DNR to be valid there may be rules such as the use of a special form and/or additional signatures of a doctor and/or witnesses, etc. The exact rules for obtaining and for emergency medical personnel accepting the validity of a DNR order vary widely according to jurisdiction.
Euthanasia - This is often referred to as "active euthanasia", meaning the patient's life is ended by the direct action of a physician.
   Euthanasia is immoral. One, this prerogative belongs exclusively to God. Two, administering euthanasia leaves no opportunity for a misdiagnosis. Three, euthanasia could move from voluntary to non-voluntary. This might lead to a patient having to justify their existence, if they could. Those with Powers of Attorney and relatives could become tired of a person living for any number of reasons - family pressure, bills, draining an estate, inability to enact wills, 'need to remarry issues', etc. Four, prohibition of euthanasia will keep the law out of the medical setting. Five, euthanasia will open the door to neglect of the elderly and terminally ill. Six, the elderly need a secure setting in which to deal with their medical choices at the end of their life. In particular, they do not need to consider those choices in an atmosphere of fear produced by the possibility of involuntary euthanasia.   
Genetic Technologies - Helpful advances are the use of genetic technologies in forensics and the prevention/cure of diseases.
   Unhelpful advances would be gene enhancement therapies to create designer embryos and genetically engineered children. Eugenics is also immoral. Eugenics is weeding out genetic undesirables in a society.
   Other ethical concerns in genetics are population testing (carrier testing), privacy of personal genetic data, genetic discrimination, genetic stigmatization, and psychological trauma caused by illegal sharing of genetic data - all based on one's genetic profile in genetic registries. It would be morally correct to determine who holds the registries and how the registries would be used. 
Stem Cell Research - Stem cell research is one key to finding cures to such diseases as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's and multiple sclerosis or to treat paralysis. Using adult stem cells is justifiable, but using human embryonic stem cells is immoral because human life and personhood begin at conception.
Birth Control: Birth control is a regimen of one or more actions, devices, or medications followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the likelihood of a woman giving birth or becoming pregnant. Methods and intentions termed birth control may be considered family planning. Mechanisms which are intended to reduce the likelihood of the fertilization may be referred to as contraception. Contraception prevents fertilization. Methods of birth control which prevent the implantation of an embryo if fertilization occurs are medically considered to be contraception but characterized by others as abortifacients.
   Birth control is controversial. There are those who oppose all forms of birth control short of sexual abstinence; those who oppose forms of birth control they deem "unnatural," while allowing natural family planning; and those who support most forms of birth control that prevent fertilization, but oppose any method of birth control which prevents a fertilized embryo from initiating a pregnancy.
   Prior to the 1900’s, contraception was generally condemned by all the major branches of Christianity. This unified front no longer exists. Among Christian denominations today there are a large variety of positions for contraception.
   Like pre-1930s Protestantism, the Roman Catholic Church has been morally opposed to contraception as far back as one can historically trace. Couples seeking marriage in the RCC are in most dioceses required to undergo counseling by a priest. In the past, priests led couples seeking to delay children to the rhythm method, but today they are instructed to point new couples toward the more effective methods of natural family planning.
   The condemnation of contraception was first relaxed by the Anglican Communion at the 1930 Lambeth Conference, and most Protestant groups followed suit over the course of the 20th century: "The Church of England does not regard contraception as a sin or a contravention of God's purpose." — Church of England, Science, Medicine, Technology and the Environment (2005).
   The Jewish view on birth control currently varies between the Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform branches of Judaism. Among Orthodox Judaism, use of birth control has been considered only acceptable for use in limited circumstances. Conservatives, while generally encouraging its members to follow the traditional Jewish views on birth control, has been more willing to allow exceptions regarding its use to fit better within modern society. Reformed Judaism has generally been the most liberal with regard to birth control allowing individual followers to use their own judgment in what, if any, birth control methods they might wish to employ.
   The following constitutes the current position of the Episcopal Church on birth control (emphasis is mine) -

Resolution Number: 1994-D009
Title: Reaffirm Family Planning and Control of Global Population Growth
Source: General Convention, Journal of the General Convention of...The Episcopal Church, Indianapolis, 1994 (New York: General Convention, 1995), pp. 281-82.

Resolved, the House of Bishops concurring, That the 1994 General Convention of the Episcopal Church affirm that rapid global population growth adversely affects the prospects for peace and justice by exacerbating poverty, deprivation and suffering, and depleting environmental resources; and be it further
Resolved, That the Episcopal Church reaffirm the 1930 Lambeth Conference of the Anglican communion, which approved contraception for purposes of family planning; and be it further
Resolved, That the Episcopal Church, in order to improve the quality of life for all, commend to the several dioceses and agencies of the Episcopal Church as well as to the relative structures of the Anglican Communion programs and projects to provide information to all men and women on the full range of affordable, acceptable, safe, and non-coercive contraceptive and reproductive health care services, utilizing educational programs which start with parents and their children; and be it further
Resolved, That governments everywhere be encouraged to recognize, acknowledge and seek remedies to reverse the rapid global population growth that adversely affects the health, education and quality of life of women; the prospects for peace; and depletes environmental resources; and be it further
Resolved, That the Secretary of the 1994 General Convention be requested to send a copy of this resolution to the President of the United States, the Vice-President of the United States, the Undersecretary for Global Affairs of the Department of State, the chairman of the International Conference on Population and Development, the representative of the Anglican Consultative Council to the United Nations, the Secretary General of the United States Catholic Conference, the Administrator of USAID, and the Secretary General of the United Nations, together with a letter expressing the hope that the actions proposed above be carried out world-wide.

   There now seems to be three main moral issues in birth control. One, natural conception is an act of God, not a woman. Two, world populations are growing at such an alarming rate that poverty and disease (and resulting deaths) are growing exponentially. Three, sexually transmitted diseases are out of control - especially the world’s largest pandemic - AIDS.
   The study of the history of birth control goes back centuries. If interested, one may do an internet study beginning with WebMD, Epigee Women's Health, the Yale-New Haven Teacher's Institute History of Birth Control, and/or the Houghton Mifflin Online Study Center's History of Birth Control.
   My opinion is that life begins at conception and destroying life at conception or thereafter is morally wrong, except in the cases I have outlined under the topic of abortion. The case for over population, based on contemporary studies, does not seem accurate. The case for the pandemic of sexually transmitted diseases is accurate and I would hold that in those cases, birth control is justifiable. The case of the Anglican Communion justifying contraception as a means of birth control in 1930 needs additional examination because that decision may not be as simple as reported. The case for the education of families in the use of birth control methods by the Episcopal Church's decision in 1994 needs additional attention, as it seems much too broad and does not elevate abstinence as a biblical standard. Churches and parents need to be very careful what they teach children or children will view worldly standards of birth control as morally right and they are not. The sexual education of children by Christians should always begin with the Bible and God's opinion on the subject.
Reproductive Technologies - This is a term for all current and anticipated uses of technology in human and animal reproduction, including:

JUSTICE                  TOP

1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th World - The terms First World, Second World and Third World can be used to divide the nations of Earth into three broad categories.
   After World War II, people began to speak of the NATO and Warsaw Pact countries as two major blocs. The two "worlds" were not numbered. It was eventually pointed out that there were many countries that fit into neither category, and in the 1950s this latter group came to be called the Third World. It then began to seem that there ought to be a "First World" and a "Second World."
   Eventually, it became common practice to refer to nations within the Western European and United States' sphere of influence (e.g. the NATO countries) as the First World. Besides North America (USA and Canada) and Western Europe, the First World also included other industrialized capitalist countries such as Japan and some of the former British colonies, particularly Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
   The term Second World has largely fallen out of use because of the circumstances to which it referred largely ended with the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union.
   Third World is a term created by Jawaharlal Nehru (First Prime Minister of India), originally to distinguish nations that aligned with neither the West nor with the East during the Cold War. Today, the term is used to denote nations with a low UN Human Development Index (HDI), independent of their political status. Many "Third World" countries are located in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. They are often nations that were colonized by another nation in the past. Third World countries are generally very poor but with high populations and birth rates. In general, they are not as industrialized or technologically advanced as other countries.
   The majority of the countries in the world are Third World. These countries are also known as the Global South, developing countries, least developed countries and the Majority World in academic circles. Development workers also call them the Two-Thirds world (because two-thirds of the world is underdeveloped) and The South. Some dislike the term ‘developing countries’ as it may imply that economic development is the only way forward, while they believe it is not necessarily the most beneficial. The term Third World is also disliked as it may imply the false notion that those countries are not a part of the global economic system. Some claim that the underdevelopment of Africa, Asia and South America during the Cold War was influenced, or even caused by the Cold War economic, political, and military maneuverings of the most powerful nations of the time.
   The term Fourth World is used by some to describe the poorest Third World countries, those which lack industrial infrastructure and the means to build it. More commonly, however, the term is used to describe either indigenous peoples or other oppressed minority groups within any country.
Civil Rights - Civil rights are the protections and privileges of personal liberty given to all citizens by law. Civil rights can refer to the equal treatment of all citizens irrespective of race, gender, and class – or, it can refer to laws which invoke claims of positive liberty.
   Laws guaranteeing civil rights may be written, derived from custom, or implied. In the United States, civil rights laws are most often written. For example, laws protecting civil rights appear in the Constitution, in the amendments to the Constitution, in federal statues, in state constitutions and statues, and in the ordinances of counties and cities. States and local governments can expand civil rights beyond the U.S. Constitution, but they cannot diminish Constitutional rights.
   Examples of civil rights and liberties include the right to redress if injured by another, the right to privacy, the right of peaceful protest, the right to a fair investigation and trial if suspected of a crime, and more generally-based constitutional rights such as the right to vote, the right to personal freedom, the right to life, the right to freedom of movement and anti-discrimination laws.
   As the United States emerged from its foundations and formalized its principles of freedom through a written Constitution, important civil rights were granted to citizens. When those grants were later found inadequate, civil rights movements emerged as the vehicle for claiming more equal protection for all citizens and advocating new laws to limit the effect of current discriminations.
Class, Privilege, and Wealth - The present state of American culture reflects that social mobility is declining, there is a growing gap in income equality, and there is a crisis in equal opportunity in education. Without correction, a variety of permanent American underclasses will be created. This is immoral.
   In “The Promise of American Life”, Herbert Croly noted that “a democracy, not less than a monarchy or an aristocracy, must recognize political, economic, and social distinctions, but it must also withdraw its consent whenever these discriminations show any tendency to excessive endurance.” So far Americans have been fairly tolerant of economic distinctions. But that tolerance may not last long if the current trend towards “excessive endurance” in class, privilege, and wealth is not reversed. The middle class culture will become much smaller as underclass and upper class cultures become more distinct.
   The Economic Policy Institute found that social mobility has declined since the 1970s and most researchers agree that the dramatic increase in income inequality over the past two decades has not been accompanied by an equally dramatic increase in social mobility. Two economists at the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston have analyzed family incomes over three decades. They found that 40% of families remained stuck in the same income bracket in the 1990s, compared with 37% of families in the 1980s and 36% in the 1970s.
   Merit has replaced the old system of inherited privilege. Merit is at least partly class-based. Parents with money, education and connections cultivate in their children the habits that today’s meritocracy rewards. This is particularly true of the markers of upscale Americans – college degrees, graduate degrees, career path, and the parents’ profession. When their children succeed, their success is seen as earned. The perception among the well-to-do that everyone could simply do likewise and achieve the same results is inaccurate. That we have confused the benefits conferred by wealth with merit says a lot about how far we are from doing something about the growing gap in American social mobility, wealth distribution, and educational opportunity.
   If one can remember that ultimately class, privilege and wealth (money) are passing illusions (because one cannot control or even possess them except for a very limited time) in the greater scheme of life, then one can balance their understanding of eternal matters and act responsibly and morally.
Immigration & Borders - The borders and ports of the US are particularly vulnerable, not only to illegal immigration, but also as a route for terrorists. Guarding them is very costly. For example, on the 1,951 mile border between Mexico and the US, it takes 10,000 federal agents to guard it. In 2004, they made 1.14 million arrests. That was a 24% increase from the previous year. Local communities along the border are being swamped with services they cannot afford and these local economies are faltering. Federal payments are far short of matching actual expenses.

Here are some 2005 U.S. Border Patrol statistics:
5,000 - Approximate miles of border with Canada
1,951 - Approximate miles of border with Mexico
95,000 - Approximate miles of U.S. shoreline
29,000 - Approximate number of Border Patrol agents & officers
317 - U.S. ports of entry
210 - Average number of fraudulent documents confiscated daily at U.S. borders
1 - Average number of travelers detained daily for terrorism or national security
135 - Average daily arrests at U.S. ports of entry
1,237 - Average number of non-citizens denied entry daily at U.S. ports of entry
2,313 - Pounds of narcotics seized daily at U.S. ports of entry

   For the preservation of a stable democracy, we have learned since 2001 that it is important and moral to strengthen the porous borders and security of the United States.
   Where people desire to become legal immigrants, they have a right to do so. Illegal immigration is not moral nor is it healthy for the American society. However, U.S. immigration laws are not equal under the law and need legislation.
   The idea of having immigrants who do not want to be citizens or who are unable to be citizens, be issued guest-worker permits, is a good alternative. Those whose intentions are to remain illegal, should be deported, because it will eventually destroy the infrastructure of the U.S. government and significantly increase the risk of terrorism.
Internet Pornography - For a Christian, any kind of pornography is immoral because it is a sexual perversion and it does not represent God's values of decency defined in the Bible.
   Parents have a responsibility to consider installing internet screening software on home computers and computers of children under adult age.
   Those with Christian businesses (as well as pastors with churches) have an equal responsibility to ensure office computers are not being used by employees for pornography. Software exists that will allow supervisors to quickly check a computer for pornographic use.
   The internet is a global information community, so legal precedents are just now 'beginning' to be established. Who decides - global, national, state, or local law? Because of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in 1973 in Miller vs. California, obscenity cases have been judged according to standards of local communities. The Supreme Court has not ruled on any case that would establish how to define "local standards", but the U.S. 6th District Court of Appeals has upheld a 'local' jury conviction of internet pornography.
Literacy - Greg Toppo reported in USA TODAY on December 15^th, 2005 that that according to a new federal survey, eleven million U.S. adults — about one in 20 — have such poor English skills that they can't read a newspaper, understand the directions on a bottle of pills or, in many cases, carry on a basic conversation.
   Recent immigrants with limited or no English skills account for most of the group, adult education advocates say, but the survey suggests that even the average adult has low skills.
   The first comprehensive look at adult literacy since a similar study in 1992, the National Assessment of Adult Literacy, released in December 2005 in Washington, found that an estimated 30 million adults, or 14%, have "below basic" skills.
   The survey concluded that an estimated 11 million adults are "non-literate" in English, including 4 million who probably can't speak English and 7 million who can't answer basic written questions. "We remain concerned that the numbers are so high," said Leslie Burger, president-elect of the American Library Association. She and others said the high numbers of non-literate adults is a function of increased immigration in the past decade. Many new immigrants, advocates say, could benefit from adult education programs but worry that doing so could expose them to government scrutiny and even deportation. The non-literate population includes adults who may be able to read and write — even at high levels — in their native language.
   Education Secretary Margaret Spellings said in December 2005 that, “the federal government will coordinate adult education efforts through several federal agencies. One adult unable to read is one too many in America." Jose Velazquez, director of the National Center for Family Literacy's Hispanic Family Learning Institute, said education needs to focus more on adults. "This country right now is focused on No Child Left Behind, but we can clearly see from this data that many adults are being left behind."
   Christians have a moral responsibility to help those who are illiterate become literate. This would be a tremendous outreach opportunity for most Christian churches.
Poverty - There is no ethical issue larger or more important than poverty. Poor people describe poverty as the lack of food, medical help, and assets as well as the powerlessness that stems from dependency on others, and the helplessness to protect themselves from exploitation and abuse because of their dependence.
   Poverty facts include, but are not limited to:
   Nearly a billion people entered the 21st century unable to read a book or sign their names.
   20% of the population in developed nations consume 86% of the world’s goods.
   In 1960, the 20% of the world’s people in the wealthiest countries had 30 times the income of the poorest 20% — in 1997, 74 times as much.
   An analysis of long-term trends shows the distance between the richest and poorest countries was about:

• 3 to 1 in 1820
• 11 to 1 in 1913
• 35 to 1 in 1950
• 44 to 1 in 1973
• 72 to 1 in 1992

   The developing world now spends $13 on debt repayment for every $1 it receives in grants.
   Of all human rights failures today, those in economic and social areas affect by far the larger number and are the most widespread across the world’s nations.
   Approximately 790 million people in the developing world are still chronically undernourished, almost two-thirds of whom reside in Asia and the Pacific.
   According to UNICEF, 30,000 children die each day due to poverty. They die quietly in some of the poorest villages on earth, far removed from the scrutiny and the conscience of the world. Being meek and weak in life makes these dying multitudes even more invisible in death. That is about 210,000 children each week, or just under 11 million children under five years of age, each year.
   Today, across the world, 1.3 billion people live on less than one dollar a day; 3 billion live on less than two dollars a day; 1.3 billion have no access to clean water; 3 billion have no access to sanitation; 2 billion have no access to electricity.
   The richest 50 million people in Europe and North America have the same income as 2.7 billion poor people.
   A mere 12 percent of the world’s population uses 85 percent of its water, and these 12 percent do not live in the Third World.
   About 0.13% of the world’s population controlled 25% of the world’s assets in 2004.
   10,000 women in developing countries die each year giving birth.
   200,000 children in developing countries under age five die of disease each year.
   2,000,000 people will die of AIDS this year in Africa alone.
   As many as 115,000,000 children in developing countries are not in school.
   Poverty has many faces and it is a global challenge that is growing exponentially. Peace with stable political and economic justice systems have to prevail for systems to develop to support the poor. Peace provides a way to build a climate for investment, jobs, and sustainable growth. There is a vital relationship between long-term economic growth and human development, yet without human development, economic growth cannot be sustained. Making institutions of government more accountable to poor people and strengthening the participation of poor people in political processes and local decision-making discourages poverty. In addition, reducing poor people's vulnerability to ill health, crop failures, natural disasters, economic shocks and violence is an important aid in the relief of the poor.
   As more and more poor move to cities, another kind of poverty is urban poverty. The urban poor live with many deprivations. Their daily challenges include: 

• limited access to employment opportunities and income,
• inadequate and insecure housing and services,
• violent and unhealthy environments,
• little or no social protection mechanisms, and
• limited access to adequate health and education opportunities.

   Urban poverty is not just a collection of characteristics, it is a dynamic condition of vulnerability or susceptibility to risks that includes cities and towns of all sizes.
   Poverty is associated with the poor, but the growth of poverty in a global environment still grappling with unstable governments, military and trade wars, and uncompromising world and religious views makes all people poor. Every person on the face of earth is paying for poverty and the cost increases annually.
Victimization - Christians have an explicit responsibility to minister to the needs of real victims with heartfelt empathy - discerning victim from opportunist. An opportunist is a person willing to take immediate advantage, often unethically, of any circumstance of possible benefit. 
   Today, there is a bewildering assortment of victims, a cacophony of angry opportunists vying with one another for victim status, shouting for redress. Instead of being personally responsible for a solution to their situation, they project their victimhood upon others. A Nation of Victims (Charles J. Sykes, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1992) is an excellent primer to understand this movement.
   A legitimate victim is someone who, through no fault of their own, has suffered significant loss of some essential part of their life. With or without help, a real victim finds a responsible way to manage life. However, many in today's society seem to increasingly believe that when one experiences hardship or pain, blame should be attached somewhere and redress achieved by enshrining irresponsible behavior as a handicap to achieve legal protection and economic gain. By virtue of assuming victim status, the perpetrator is excused and even lionized for taking affirmative action to free himself or herself from his or her ‘oppressors’. In this social movement, personal irresponsibility is evolving into a civil right. 
   It is a Christian duty to promote moral concepts for being personally accountable. Christians also have an explicit responsibility to minister to the needs of true victims, but Christians should minister with their eyes open to the additional responsibility of discerning true victim from victimological opportunist. 
Native American Rights - The civil, human, and religious rights for those indigenous to the Americas prior to European colonization, and their descendants in modern times is an important moral subject. This term encompasses a large number of distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of them still enduring as political communities.
   Federally recognized tribes are considered domestic dependent nations, with their rights to tribal sovereignty preserved. Tribal sovereignty refers to tribes' right to govern themselves, define their own membership, manage tribal property, and regulate tribal business and domestic relations; it further recognizes the existence of a government-to-government relationship between such tribes and the federal government. The federal government has special trust obligations to protect tribal lands and resources, protect tribal rights to self-government, and provide services necessary for tribal survival and advancement.
   It is morally correct to preserve the tribal sovereignty and treaty rights of First Americans.
Racial Profiling - One need not consider race to the exclusion of all other factors to be engaged in racial profiling. Rather, a "profile" will often contain a variety of factors: If one or more of them is race, then it is a racial profile. Profiling involves giving prominent consideration in security searches to characteristics that have no direct connection with wrongdoing.
   The costs of racial profiling can be great.

• There is an element of inherent unfairness in singling a person out for suspicion because of a trait that is generally harmless.
• Such treatment can create a stigma for members of particular groups.
• Such a stigma can exacerbate any tendency that a group exhibits to be involved in a particular kind of wrongdoing. It may reinforce a stereotype that a certain type of person is "expected" to be a criminal, a drug user, a terrorist, etc.
• Accepting profiling where its use can be legitimated may open the door to institutionalized discrimination and the erosion of civil liberties.

   It seems unreasonable to visit disproportionate burdens upon one segment of the population, defined by its racial characteristics. In part, this is because race is immutable and therefore cannot be altered to avoid unwanted disparate treatment.
   No state law enforcement agency or official should stop, detain, or search any person when such action is solely motivated by consideration of race, color, or ethnicity, and the action would constitute a violation of the civil rights of the person.
Separation of Church and State - In the United States separation of church and state is governed by the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution and by legal precedents interpreting that clause. The term, "separation of church and state", does not appear in the Constitution.
   The view that religious and state institutions should be separate is a wide spectrum, ranging between, but not including, the extremes which secularize or destroy the church, and theocracy which absorbs the state into the function of the church. A government that does not make direct appeal to a specific institution of religion for the justification of its powers is a secular government. Some secularists assert that the state should be kept entirely separate from religion, and that the institutions of religion should be entirely free from state interference. Some secular governments establish quasi-religious justifications for their powers, constructed for ceremonial and rhetorical purposes, but designed for the general welfare and the benefit of the state, without necessarily favoring any specific religious group, or conforming to any doctrine other than its own - an arrangement called civil religion. Other secularists assert that the state ought to encourage religion by providing exemptions from taxation, or providing funds for education and charities, including those that are "faith based", but ought not establish one religion as the state religion, require religious observance, or legislate dogma.
   The legal concept of the union of freedom of belief and freedom of worship, with the absence of any state-sponsored religion, originated in the United States. Consequently the US has become a nation of many religious institutions which flourish under the freedom of legal protection. The US government, however, does not allow total unrestricted freedom of religious practice. Federal, state, and local laws take precedence over the free exercise of religious beliefs, which means that laws against any crime committed by a religious institution can be enforced even if such practices are part of a group's religious beliefs.
Violence Against Women - Violence against women (and children) is highly immoral. The places were violence against women are most noticeable in our culture are in the media, domestic relationships, dating, sexual assault and abuse, elder abuse, stalking, and abuse of mentally ill women. One third of women in the United States are abused each year, a major reason being the commercial exploitation of women by the media which conditions society to treat women as a commodity (an object of personal gratification).
   It is often hard and confusing for a woman to admit that she is in an abusive relationship, or to find a way out. There are clear signs to help you know if you are being abused. If the person you love or live with does any of these things to you, it’s time to get help:

• monitors what you’re doing all the time
• criticizes you for little things
• constantly accuses you of being unfaithful
• prevents or discourages you from seeing friends or family, or going to work or school
• gets angry when drinking alcohol or using drugs
• controls how you spend your money
• controls your use of needed medicines
• humiliates you in front of others
• destroys your property or things that you care about
• threatens to hurt you, the children, or pets, or does cause hurt (by hitting, beating, pushing, shoving, punching, slapping, kicking, or biting)
• uses or threatens to use a weapon against you
• forces you to have sex against your will
• blames you for his or her violent outbursts

   To get immediate help and support call the National Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-SAFE (7233) or the National Sexual Assault Hotline at 1-800-656-4673.

SECULAR & CHRISTIAN ETHICS                  TOP

Business Ethics - Business ethics is a form of applied ethics that examines ethical rules and principles within a commercial context; the various moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business setting; and any special duties or obligations that apply to persons who are engaged in commerce. Generally speaking, business ethics is a normative discipline, whereby particular ethical standards are assumed in corporate policy and business professionalism - and then applied. In business, ethics is a moving target as individuals and business cultures are very different in their perception of values.
   Business ethics aren't identical to the philosophy of business, the branch of philosophy that deals with the philosophical, political, and ethical underpinnings of business and economics.
   Business ethics makes specific judgments about what is right or wrong, which is to say, it makes claims about what ought to be done or what ought not to be done. While there are some exceptions, business ethicists are usually less concerned with justifying ethical principles, and are more concerned with practical problems and applications, and any specific duties that might apply to business relationships.
   Contemporary ethical issues in business are accounting and financial standards, advertising deception, black market sales, bribery, kickbacks, business intelligence, corporate espionage, political contributions, corporate governance, corporate crime, price discrimination, competitive disinformation, discrimination, affirmative action, sexual harassment, employee issues, professional conduct, environment, labor, marketing, sales, negotiation techniques, patent and copyright infringement, planned obsolescence, product liability and product defects.
   Because of the insatiable demand by the American public for low cost products in the 21st century, two of the fastest growing domestic business ethics concerns are 1) manufacturing outsourcing, which affects a wide range of ethical sub-systems; and 2) the building of large corporate stores in rural towns, which changes generational small businesses and the character of those towns. In both cases, thousands of people have lost their vocations, business, and retirement. Both concerns have a moral and immoral side and both are "fueled" by the American appetite of consumerism and wealth accumulation.
Christian Humanism - Christian humanism is a philosophical union of Christian and humanist principles. It has been traced back to at least the 12th century, and its proponents claim it to be grounded in the mystery of God present in history as a human being, Jesus, and secondly, on "several" teachings of Jesus, as found in the New Testament. It does not elevate ordinary human beings to the status of deities, nor does it deny the primacy of God, but rather it seeks to celebrate humanity and place the 'serving' of one's fellow human beings as one of the highest Christian duties.
   Christian humanism carries within it a potential for reaching across the metaphysical divide separating two sides of American culture, in which one side places moral authority in something transcending the individual, and the other places moral authority in personal human experience.
   Christian humanism is first of all a movement for widened learning that emerged out of the Renaissance and was brought by devoted Christians to the study of the philological sources of the Greek New Testament. This project was undertaken at the time of the Reformation in the work of Erasmus (Roman Catholic), Martin Luther (Augustinian priest who led the Evangelical Reformation), and John Calvin (of the Reformed tradition who believed in studying the Bible in the original languages).
   The broader tradition extends the usage of the term "Christian humanism” to describe the vocations of Christians active in the discipline of Humane Letters and who serve on Humanities faculties of colleges and universities. Many authors of novels and poems (T.S. Eliot), writing in the Twentieth and Twenty First centuries can be described as "Christian humanists". Many teachers of literary criticism also call themselves "Christian humanists," and understand literary values as including those of gentility, morality, and faith-perspective. Novelists of the preceding generation identified in this manner were Dorothy Sayers (Anglican), Charles Williams (Anglican), C. S. Lewis (Anglican), J. R. R. Tolkien (Roman Catholic), and Flannery O'Connor (Roman Catholic).
   Some Christian humanists value culture but confess that mankind is fully developed only as it comes into a right relationship with Christ.
Pelagianism - Pelagianism is very much a part of the 21st century Christian scene. It is the belief that original sin did not taint human nature, and that mortal will is capable of choosing good or evil without Divine aid. Thus, Adam's sin was "to set a bad example" for his progeny, but his actions did not have the other consequences imputed to original sin.
   Pelagianism views the role of Jesus as "setting a good example" for the rest of us, thus counteracting Adam's bad example. In short, a person has full control of his or her life, and thus full responsibility for his or her own salvation in addition to full responsibility for every sin.
   Pelagianism was condemned by Christianity as a heresy in 431 A.D.
Civil Religion - The term "civil religion" was coined by Jean Jacques Rousseau in his treatise, "On the Social Contract" (1762), which was widely influential among America's founders. Rousseau frowned on the model of monarchies, in which the head of state was the head of the church; and he took a negative view of Christianity itself, because he believed it divided citizens' loyalties between their civic and spiritual obligations. His solution was to create a "purely civil profession of faith" that would be promoted by a nation's leaders.
   After the revolutionary period in America, civil religion went without much examination or commentary until University of California, Berkeley professor Robert Bellah revived the subject in his 1967 essay, "Civil Religion in America."
   "In American political theory, sovereignty rests, of course, with the people; but implicitly, and often explicitly, the ultimate sovereignty has been attributed to God," Bellah wrote. "This is the meaning of the motto, 'In God We Trust,' and the inclusion of the phrase 'under God' in the pledge to the flag."
   John Winthrop is the formal beginning of American civil religion. Winthrop, a devout Puritan and leader of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, delivered his famous sermon on board the Arabella en route to Massachusetts. In it, he said, "Thus stands the cause between God and us. We are entered into covenant with Him for this work. We have taken out a commission. ... For we must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us." - John Winthrop, "A Model of Christian Charity," 1630.
   Winthrop's Puritan followers looked upon him as a Moses-like figure, leading them to the promised land. The crossing of the Atlantic became a metaphor for crossing the Red Sea and the Jordan River, and Massachusetts would be the new Israel.
   This idea has carried forward from colonial times, through the Revolution, the Civil War and right up to the present. Civil religion applies the themes spelled out by Winthrop.
Civil religion contains the following elements:

Myths: Sacred stories, parables and legendary acts of heroism, such as George Washington’s feats of heroism in the Revolutionary War and Abraham Lincoln’s sacrifices to preserve the union.
Rituals: Ceremonies and actions that define communities and cross denominational lines, such as the honoring of the dead, memorializing people who died in battle, and saying the Pledge of Allegiance.
Ethics: Codes of moral conduct, what the Puritans called ̶