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For the Christian, virtue comes from God's character,
so moral rules and principles are those consistent with the outworking
of God's virtue known in Holy Scripture.
TOPICS
The Rev. Dr. Al W. Jenkins
Rector
ETHICS
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Definition:
Ethics is a very broad subject and it refers to the principles that define behavior.
Biblical
ethics refers to the principles that define behavior that conforms to
the will of God in Holy Scripture.
Specifically, ethics is the branch of axiology – one of
the four major branches of philosophy, alongside metaphysics,
epistemology, and logic – which attempts to understand the nature of
morality; to define that which is right from that which is wrong. The
Western tradition of ethics is sometimes called moral philosophy.
The terms 'ethics' and 'values' are not interchangeable.
Ethics is concerned with 'how' a person, institution, etc. should
behave, whereas values are the inner judgments that determine how that
person, institution, etc. 'actually' behaves.
Making decisions always involves ethics and ethics
requires sensitivity to implications of choices - the ability to
evaluate sometimes complex, ambiguous and incomplete facts, and the
skill to implement ethical choices.
It requires a framework of
principles that are reliable and a procedure (model) for applying them
to life. The study of ethics is a flexible discipline because it
implies that a Christian is growing and therefore changing as one
learns from life, history, theology, philosophy, and other disciplines.
Character: There are six pillars to character.
They are trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring,
and citizenship.
The elements of trustworthiness are honesty,
reliability, and loyalty.
The elements of respect are civility, courtesy,
decency, dignity, autonomy, tolerance, and acceptance.
The elements of responsibility are accountability,
pursuit of excellence, and self-restraint.
The elements of fairness are being able and
willing to process, impartiality, and equity.
The elements of caring are empathy and benevolence.
The elements of citizenship are civic virtues and
duties.
Please visit the Josephson Institute of Ethics or
Character Counts.
HUMAN SANCTITY &
MEDICINE
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Abortion: The following constitutes the Episcopal Church's
position on abortion - (emphasis is mine)
Resolution
Number: 1994-A054
Title: Reaffirm General Convention Statement on Childbirth and Abortion
Source: General Convention, Journal of the General Convention
of...The Episcopal Church, Indianapolis, 1994 (New York: General
Convention, 1995), pp. 323-25.
Resolved,
the House of Bishops concurring, That this 71st General Convention of
the Episcopal Church reaffirms resolution C047 from the 69th General
Convention, which states: All human life is sacred from its
inception until death. The Church takes seriously its obligation
to help form the consciences of its members concerning this sacredness.
Human life, therefore, should be initiated only advisedly and in full
accord with this understanding of the power to conceive and give
birth which is bestowed by God. It is the responsibility of our
congregations to assist their members in becoming informed concerning
the spiritual and physiological aspects of sex and sexuality.
The Book of Common Prayer affirms that "the birth of a child is a joyous
and solemn occasion in the life of a family. It is also an occasion for
rejoicing in the Christian community" (p. 440). As Christians we also
affirm responsible family planning.
We regard all abortion as having a tragic dimension, calling for
the concern and compassion of all the Christian community.
While we acknowledge that in this country it is the legal right of every
woman to have a medically safe abortion, as Christians we believe
strongly that if this right is exercised, it should be used only in
extreme situations. We emphatically oppose abortion as a means of
birth control, family planning, sex selection, or any reason of mere
convenience.
In those cases where an abortion is being considered, members of this
Church are urged to seek the dictates of their conscience in prayer, to
seek the advice and counsel of members of the Christian community and
where appropriate, the sacramental life of this Church.
Whenever members of this Church are consulted with regard to a
problem pregnancy, they are to explore, with grave seriousness, with the
person or persons seeking advice and counsel, as alternatives to
abortion, other positive courses of action, including, but not
limited to, the following possibilities: the parents raising the child;
another family member raising the child; making the child available for
adoption.
It is the responsibility of members of this Church, especially the
clergy, to become aware of local agencies and resources which will
assist those faced with problem pregnancies.
We believe that legislation concerning abortions will not address the
root of the problem. We therefore express our deep conviction that
any proposed legislation on the part of national or state governments
regarding abortions must take special care to see that the individual
conscience is respected, and that the responsibility of individuals
to reach informed decisions in this matter is acknowledged and
honored as the position of this Church; and be it further
Resolved, That this 71st General Convention of the
Episcopal Church express its unequivocal opposition to any
legislative, executive or judicial action on the part of local, state or
national governments that abridges the right of a woman to reach an
informed decision about the termination of pregnancy or that would limit
the access of a woman to safe means of acting on her decision.
This decision
is now supplemented by a vote by the Executive Council of the Episcopal
Church taken during the January 9-12, 2006 meeting in Des Moines, Iowa, in
which they approved the Episcopal Church's membership in the Religious
Coalition for Reproductive Choice (RCRC). This organization's literature
states its "primary role is educating the public to make clear that
abortion can be a moral, ethical, and religiously responsible decision."
Source: The Living Church Foundation, 1/20/2006
The above national resolution (1994)
and the recent decision (2006) of the Executive Council exacerbates
division in the Episcopal Church.
It is "double
speak" and points to the relaxing of ethical values by
legislating Anglican morality.
Natalie E Roche, MD,
Assistant Professor, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's
Health,
University of Medicine and
Dentistry of New Jersey, wrote the following for eMedicine, September
28, 2004:
“Termination
of pregnancy has been practiced since ancient times and by all cultures.
The indications and social context for termination of pregnancy vary
with culture and time.
The use of abortion to preserve the life of the mother has been
widely accepted. Early Jewish scholars' interpretation of the Talmud
required that the fetus be destroyed if it posed a threat to the mother
during delivery. The ancient Greeks allowed abortion under certain
circumstances. Ancient Romans did not consider a fetus a person until
after birth, and abortion was practiced widely. Early Christians had
varying practices regarding abortion. By 1869, the Catholic church
declared abortion a sin punishable by excommunication.
In the United States, legislation regarding abortion has varied with
the times. Before 1800, no statutes addressed the subject of abortion.
The first antiabortion legislation appeared in the 1820’s; the
preservation of pregnant women's health was the motivating force. During
this time, the mortality rate from abortion was high, while the
mortality rate from childbirth was less than 3%. By 1900, abortion in
the United States at any time during pregnancy was a crime, with the
exception of therapeutic abortion performed to save the mother's life.
During the 1950's, the practice of medicine came under increasing
scrutiny, and guidelines were set to define the indications for
therapeutic abortion. The guidelines allowed therapeutic abortion if (1)
pregnancy would "gravely impair the physical and mental health of the
mother," (2) the child born was likely to have "grave physical and
mental defects," or (3) the pregnancy was the result of rape or incest (Mcfarlane,
1993). In the United States, the legalization of abortion by
Roe v Wade in 1973 upheld
the fundamental right of a woman to determine whether to continue her
pregnancy.
U.S. statistics indicate that the vast majority of abortions are
elective. Therapeutic abortion is rare. The ability to define
therapeutic abortion performed for maternal indications is difficult
because of the subjective nature of decisions made about potential
morbidity and mortality in pregnant women. A variety of medical
conditions in pregnant women have the potential to affect health and
cause complications that may be life threatening.
Prenatal screening in the form of prenatal diagnostic screening
continues to improve the antepartum diagnosis of fetal anomalies. The
decision to continue or terminate a pregnancy complicated by fetal
anomalies is a difficult decision. The most difficult decisions are
associated with anomalies that are unpredictable or highly variable in
their expression.
The increase in the use of assisted reproductive technologies has
been associated with an enormous increase in multifetal pregnancies.
These pregnancies are complicated by increased fetal morbidity and
mortality rates, which are largely caused by prematurity and growth
retardation. Selective reduction has been introduced as a technology to
improve perinatal outcomes in these pregnancies and has been successful
in reducing preterm deliveries and associated morbidity and mortality.
Patients in need of therapeutic termination of pregnancy can be
identified at any gestational age; however, the consideration of
therapeutic abortion is generally limited to pregnancies at 24 weeks'
gestation or less. Many patients are in the second trimester of
pregnancy because of the timing of fetal assessment tools (eg,
amniocentesis, ultrasound).”
There are no Christian
justifications for taking the life of a baby in the womb of its mother
for birth control, convenience (abortion on demand), or medical research.
A medical abortion in a hospital may be appropriate if there is a
substantial diagnosed risk that the mother might die during the
pregnancy or delivery. A medical abortion may also be appropriate if the
baby has a fatal condition that will not allow the child to live outside the womb of
its mother.
The
decision should remain with the mother (who will be accountable to God) in accordance with her conscience
and her perceived principles of Christian faith. She should have the
guidance of her family,
attorney, clergy, and doctors when making this decision.
Law and Right to Die - The term
"right to die", also called dying with dignity, refers to various
issues around the death of an individual when that person could
continue to live with the aid of life support or in a diminished or
enfeebled capacity.
Most often, the idea of the right to die is related to a
person's wish that caregivers allow death—for example, by not providing
life support or vital medication— under certain conditions when
recovery is highly unlikely or impossible. It may also refer to issues
regarding physician-assisted suicide. It may be called passive
euthanasia in cases where the patient is unable to make decisions about
treatment. Living Wills and Do Not Resuscitate orders are legal
instruments that make a patient's treatment decisions known ahead of
time and allowing a patient to die based on such decisions is not
considered to be euthanasia. Usually these patients have also made
explicit their wish to receive only palliative care to reduce pain and
suffering.
Although specialized legal instruments differ from state
to state, there is one document that is very important in this context.
The Medical Durable Power of Attorney (or MDPOA) designates an agent to
make decisions in case of incapacity, and can be used to give written
guidance regarding end of life decision making. The MDPOA is generally
considered to be the most powerful of all such instruments. All others
may require interpretation on the part of health care providers or even
court-appointed guardians. The MDPOA takes the job of interpretation
out of the hands of strangers and gives it to a person selected and
trusted by the individual.
Termination
of Life Support - Life support can
morally be withdrawn when a person is pronounced brain dead. Brain
death is defined as a complete and irreversible cessation of brain
activity. Absence of apparent brain function is not enough. Evidence of
irreversibility is also required. Traditionally, death has been defined
as the cessation of all body functions, including respiration and
heartbeat. Since it became possible to revive some people after a
period without respiration, heartbeat, or other visible signs of life,
as well as to maintain respiration and blood flow artificially using
life support treatments, an alternative definition for death was
needed. In recent decades, the concept of "brain death" has emerged. By
brain-death criteria, a person can be pronounced clinically dead even
if the heart continues to beat due to life support measures.
A brain-dead individual has no electrical activity and no
clinical evidence of brain function on neurologic examination and no
spontaneous respirations.
Medically Assisted Suicide - This
is also called "Physician-Assisted Suicide", which is a media term. It
is more accurately rendered "Doctor-Aided Dying" or "Compassionate Aid
in Dying." Here the physician may actively serve as a casual agent in
the patient's death by providing a medical means by which the patient
can take his or her life. This is generally done through a prescription
for a lethal dose of medication with the physician providing the
instructions as to how much medication to ingest. It is quite uncommon
and the AMA strongly opposes this. However, a poll conducted by Harris
Interactive in April 2005 found that 70% of Americans believe it is
moral. In 1982, just 53% agreed that it was moral. So, it is growing in
popularity with the American public. In fact, 67% of Americans surveyed
by the Harris poll said they would favor a law like Oregon's Death With
Dignity Act in their state.
The Oregon law, ratified by their voters in 1994 and again
in 1997, requires that:
a. Two doctors certify that the patient has no more than
six months to live;
b. Patients make three requests to the doctor for a lethal
dose of medication - twice orally and once in writing.
c. The prescription is filled only after a 15-day waiting
period;
d. Patients take the drug themselves - the prescribing
doctor may not administer the drug.
Suicide and the involvement of physicians in suicide is
immoral for a Christian.
Extraordinary Medical Treatment - This area of
ethics is broad because there are so many situations to which decisions
are applied.
EMT is often applied to those in PVS (Permanent Vegetative
State). PVS are those who have lost all higher brain function and for
whom the only part of the brain that continues to function is the brain
stem, which controls the person's involuntary activities, such as
breathing, heartbeat, and digestion. Life support can morally be
withdrawn when a physician determines there is no hope for a person to
breath on their own.
EMT is also applied when a patient has been without oxygen
for an extended amount of time and a physician determines there could a
very significant amount of irreversible brain damage and the patient
will never enjoy a reasonable quality of life. In such instances, EMT
should not be applied. In some of these instances a member or members
of the person's family will insist on EMT, receive it, and the patient
will live. That person or the family will then have to be responsible
for the care of the patient, which can be very difficult, if not
impossible. In those cases, the patient cannot live without extremely
expensive state care and extra-ordinary personal and/or family care.
Living Will & DNR Order - Having a Living Will
is a very good moral decision. A Living Will, also
called Will to Live, Advance Health Directive, or Advance Health Care
Directive, is a specific type of power of attorney or
health care proxy or advance directive. It is a legal instrument that
usually is witnessed or notarized. These documents state:
-
That the principal is appointing an
individual to direct their health care decisions should the principal
be unable to do so (e.g. called "Power of Attorney for Health Care"),
or
-
Specific directives as to the course
of treatment that is to be taken by caregivers, or, in particular, in
some cases forbidding treatment and sometimes also nutrition and water,
should the principal be unable to give informed consent ("Individual
Health Care Instruction") due to incapacity.
As
the name suggests, the Will to Live tends to emphasize the wish to live
as long as possible rather than refusing treatment in the case of
serious conditions.
A
DNR,
or Do Not Resuscitate Order is a written directive from a person, their
doctor, or someone entitled to make decisions on their behalf, that
they should not be revived if they suffer cardiac arrest. This is
sometimes known as a no-code order. Instead, the person wishes to have
a natural death without painful or invasive medical procedures. This is
usually because the person suffers from an inevitably fatal illness,
and does not wish to prolong the suffering. The DNR order came into
being in the U.S. in the 1960s when defibrillation allowed the reversal
of cardiac arrest, but this may prolong the life of the patient for
only a short time. In the U.S., cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and
advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) should not be performed if a valid
written "DNR" order is present. In any cases of doubt, emergency
medical technicians, paramedics and other medical workers will perform
as if a DNR order did not exist, as is required by law. For the DNR to
be valid there may be rules such as the use of a special form and/or
additional signatures of a doctor and/or witnesses, etc. The exact
rules for obtaining and for emergency medical personnel accepting the
validity of a DNR order vary widely according to jurisdiction.
Euthanasia - This is often referred to as
"active euthanasia", meaning the patient's life is ended by the direct
action of a physician.
Euthanasia is immoral. One, this prerogative belongs
exclusively to God. Two, administering euthanasia leaves no opportunity
for a misdiagnosis. Three, euthanasia could move from voluntary to
non-voluntary. This might lead to a patient having to justify their
existence, if they could. Those with Powers of Attorney and relatives
could become tired of a person living for any number of reasons -
family pressure, bills, draining an estate, inability to enact wills,
'need to remarry issues', etc. Four, prohibition of euthanasia will
keep the law out of the medical setting. Five, euthanasia will open the
door to neglect of the elderly and terminally ill. Six, the elderly
need a secure setting in which to deal with their medical choices at
the end of their life. In particular, they do not need to consider
those choices in an atmosphere of fear produced by the possibility of
involuntary euthanasia.
Genetic Technologies - Helpful advances are the
use of genetic technologies in forensics and the prevention/cure of
diseases.
Unhelpful advances would be gene enhancement therapies to
create designer embryos and genetically engineered children. Eugenics
is also immoral. Eugenics is weeding out genetic undesirables in a
society.
Other ethical concerns in genetics are population testing
(carrier testing), privacy of personal genetic data, genetic
discrimination, genetic stigmatization, and psychological trauma caused
by illegal sharing of genetic data - all based on one's genetic profile
in genetic registries. It would be morally correct to determine who
holds the registries and how the registries would be used.
Stem Cell Research - Stem cell
research is one key to finding cures to such diseases as Parkinson's,
Alzheimer's and multiple sclerosis or to treat paralysis. Using adult
stem cells is justifiable, but using human embryonic stem cells is
immoral because human life and personhood begin at conception.
Birth Control:
Birth control is a regimen of one or more actions, devices, or
medications followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the
likelihood of a woman giving birth or becoming pregnant. Methods and
intentions termed birth control may be considered family planning.
Mechanisms which are intended to reduce the likelihood of the
fertilization may be referred to as contraception. Contraception
prevents fertilization. Methods of birth control which prevent the
implantation of an embryo if fertilization occurs are medically
considered to be contraception but characterized by others as
abortifacients.
Birth control is controversial. There are those who oppose all
forms of birth control short of sexual abstinence; those who oppose
forms of birth control they deem "unnatural," while allowing natural
family planning; and those who support most forms of birth control that
prevent fertilization, but oppose any method of birth control which
prevents a fertilized embryo from initiating a pregnancy.
Prior to the 1900’s, contraception was generally condemned by all
the major branches of Christianity. This unified front no longer exists.
Among Christian denominations today there are a large variety of
positions for contraception.
Like pre-1930s Protestantism, the Roman Catholic Church has been
morally opposed to contraception as far back as one can historically
trace. Couples seeking marriage in the RCC are in most dioceses required
to undergo counseling by a priest. In the past, priests led couples
seeking to delay children to the rhythm method, but today they are instructed to
point new couples toward the more effective methods of natural family
planning.
The condemnation of contraception was first relaxed by the Anglican
Communion at the 1930 Lambeth Conference, and most Protestant groups
followed suit over the course of the 20th century: "The Church of
England does not regard contraception as a sin or a contravention of
God's purpose." — Church of England, Science, Medicine,
Technology and the Environment (2005).
The
Jewish view on birth control currently varies between the Orthodox,
Conservative, and Reform branches of Judaism. Among Orthodox Judaism,
use of birth control has been considered only acceptable for use in
limited circumstances. Conservatives, while generally encouraging its
members to follow the traditional Jewish views on birth control, has
been more willing to allow exceptions regarding its use to fit
better within modern society. Reformed Judaism has generally been the
most liberal with regard to birth control allowing individual followers
to use their own judgment in what, if any, birth control methods they
might wish to employ.
The following constitutes the current position of the
Episcopal Church on birth control (emphasis is mine) -
Resolution
Number: 1994-D009
Title: Reaffirm Family Planning and Control of Global Population Growth
Source: General Convention, Journal of the General Convention
of...The Episcopal Church, Indianapolis, 1994 (New York: General
Convention, 1995), pp. 281-82.
Resolved,
the House of Bishops concurring, That the 1994 General Convention of the
Episcopal Church affirm that rapid global population growth adversely
affects the prospects for peace and justice by exacerbating poverty,
deprivation and suffering, and depleting environmental resources; and be
it further
Resolved, That the Episcopal Church reaffirm the 1930 Lambeth
Conference of the Anglican communion, which approved contraception for
purposes of family planning; and be it further
Resolved, That the Episcopal Church, in order to improve the
quality of life for all, commend to the several dioceses and agencies of
the Episcopal Church as well as to the relative structures of the
Anglican Communion programs and projects to provide information to
all men and women on the full range of affordable, acceptable, safe, and
non-coercive contraceptive and reproductive health care services,
utilizing educational programs which start with parents and
their children; and be it further
Resolved, That governments everywhere be encouraged to recognize,
acknowledge and seek remedies to reverse the rapid global population
growth that adversely affects the health, education and quality of life
of women; the prospects for peace; and depletes environmental resources;
and be it further
Resolved, That the Secretary of the 1994 General Convention be
requested to send a copy of this resolution to the President of the
United States, the Vice-President of the United States, the
Undersecretary for Global Affairs of the Department of State, the
chairman of the International Conference on Population and Development,
the representative of the Anglican Consultative Council to the United
Nations, the Secretary General of the United States Catholic Conference,
the Administrator of USAID, and the Secretary General of the United
Nations, together with a letter expressing the hope that the actions
proposed above be carried out world-wide.
There
now seems to be three main moral issues in birth control. One, natural
conception is an act of God, not a woman. Two, world populations are
growing at such an alarming rate that poverty and disease (and resulting
deaths) are growing exponentially. Three, sexually transmitted diseases
are out of control - especially the world’s largest pandemic - AIDS.
The study of the history of birth control goes back centuries. If
interested, one may do an internet study beginning with WebMD,
Epigee Women's Health, the Yale-New Haven Teacher's Institute History of
Birth Control, and/or the Houghton Mifflin Online Study Center's
History of Birth Control.
My opinion is that life begins at conception and destroying life at
conception or thereafter is morally wrong, except in the cases I have
outlined under the topic of abortion. The case for over population,
based on contemporary studies, does not seem accurate. The case for the
pandemic of sexually transmitted diseases is accurate and I would hold
that in those cases, birth control is justifiable. The case of the
Anglican Communion justifying contraception as a means of birth control
in 1930 needs additional examination because that decision may not be as
simple as reported. The case for the education of families in the use of
birth control methods by the Episcopal Church's decision in 1994 needs
additional attention, as it seems much too broad and does not elevate
abstinence as a biblical standard. Churches and parents need to be very
careful what they teach children or children will view worldly standards
of birth control as morally right and they are not. The sexual education
of children by Christians should always begin with the Bible and God's
opinion on the subject.
Reproductive Technologies - This is a term for all
current and anticipated uses of technology in human and animal
reproduction, including:
- artificial
insemination
- artificial wombs
- cloning
- cryopreservation of sperm, oocytes, embryos
- embryo testing & transfer
- genetic testing
- hormone treatment to increase fertility
- in vitro fertilization
- preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD)
- sperm selection
Medical research advances quickly and it is important to the church to
have a moral position on developing reproductive technologies. To do
this, it has to stay informed. Some new technologies are now quite
common and helpful to people. Others are questionable.
The areas that are questionable in ethics are providing
anything other than hybrid embryos for medical research, embryonic
commerce, cloning, artificial wombs, and aspects of genetic testing.
The following are morally questionable: using human
embryos for research, selling embryos, cloning technology beyond tissue
matching, use of artificial wombs beyond endometrial cells, and genetic
testing/therapy/informational banks that is/are not highly regulated to
protect the public's privacy and to prevent discrimination and racism.
JUSTICE
TOP
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th World - The terms
First World, Second World and Third World can be used to divide the
nations of Earth into three broad categories.
After World War II, people began to speak of the NATO and
Warsaw Pact countries as two major blocs. The two "worlds" were not
numbered. It was eventually pointed out that there were many countries
that fit into neither category, and in the 1950s this latter group came
to be called the Third World. It then began to seem that there
ought to be a "First World" and a "Second World."
Eventually, it became common practice to refer to nations
within the Western European and United States' sphere of influence
(e.g. the NATO countries) as the First World. Besides North
America (USA and Canada) and Western Europe, the First World
also included other industrialized capitalist countries such as Japan
and some of the former British colonies, particularly Australia, New
Zealand, and South Africa.
The term Second World has largely fallen out of
use because of the circumstances to which it referred largely ended
with the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union.
Third World is a term created by Jawaharlal Nehru
(First Prime Minister of India), originally to distinguish nations that
aligned with neither the West nor with the East during the Cold War.
Today, the term is used to denote nations with a low UN Human
Development Index (HDI), independent of their political status. Many "Third
World" countries are located in Africa, Latin America,
and Asia. They are often nations that were colonized by another nation
in the past. Third World countries are generally very poor but
with high populations and birth rates. In general, they are not as
industrialized or technologically advanced as other countries.
The majority of the countries in the world are Third
World. These countries are also known as the Global South, developing
countries, least developed countries and the
Majority World in academic circles. Development workers also call
them the Two-Thirds world (because two-thirds of the
world is underdeveloped) and The South. Some dislike the term ‘developing
countries’ as it may imply that economic development is the only
way forward, while they believe it is not necessarily the most
beneficial. The term Third World is also disliked as it may
imply the false notion that those countries are not a part of the
global economic system. Some claim that the underdevelopment of Africa,
Asia and South America during the Cold War was influenced, or even
caused by the Cold War economic, political, and military maneuverings
of the most powerful nations of the time.
The term Fourth World is used by some to describe
the poorest Third World countries, those which lack industrial
infrastructure and the means to build it. More commonly, however, the
term is used to describe either indigenous peoples or other oppressed
minority groups within any country.
Civil
Rights - Civil rights
are the protections and privileges of personal liberty given to all
citizens by law. Civil rights can refer to the equal treatment of all
citizens irrespective of race, gender, and class – or, it can refer to
laws which invoke claims of positive liberty.
Laws guaranteeing civil rights may be written, derived
from custom, or implied. In the United States, civil rights laws are
most often written. For example, laws protecting civil rights appear in
the Constitution, in the amendments to the Constitution, in federal
statues, in state constitutions and statues, and in the ordinances of
counties and cities. States and local governments can expand civil
rights beyond the U.S. Constitution, but they cannot diminish
Constitutional rights.
Examples of civil rights and liberties include the right
to redress if injured by another, the right to privacy, the right of
peaceful protest, the right to a fair investigation and trial if
suspected of a crime, and more generally-based constitutional rights
such as the right to vote, the right to personal freedom, the right to
life, the right to freedom of movement and anti-discrimination laws.
As the United States emerged from its foundations and
formalized its principles of freedom through a written Constitution,
important civil rights were granted to citizens. When those grants were
later found inadequate, civil rights movements emerged as the vehicle
for claiming more equal protection for all citizens and advocating new
laws to limit the effect of current discriminations.
Class,
Privilege, and Wealth - The present state of
American culture reflects that social mobility is declining, there is a
growing gap in income equality, and there is a crisis in equal
opportunity in education. Without correction, a variety of permanent
American underclasses will be created. This is immoral.
In “The
Promise of American Life”, Herbert Croly noted that “a democracy, not
less than a monarchy or an aristocracy, must recognize political,
economic, and social distinctions, but it must also withdraw its
consent whenever these discriminations show any tendency to excessive
endurance.” So far Americans have been fairly tolerant of economic
distinctions. But that tolerance may not last long if the current trend
towards “excessive endurance” in class, privilege, and wealth is not
reversed. The middle class culture will become much smaller as
underclass and upper class cultures become more distinct.
The Economic Policy
Institute found that social mobility has declined since the 1970s and
most researchers agree that the dramatic increase in income inequality
over the past two decades has not been accompanied by an
equally dramatic increase in social mobility. Two economists at the
Federal Reserve Bank of Boston have analyzed family incomes over three
decades. They found that 40% of families remained stuck in the same
income bracket in the 1990s, compared with 37% of families in the 1980s
and 36% in the 1970s.
Merit has replaced the old system of inherited privilege.
Merit is at least partly class-based. Parents with money, education and
connections cultivate in their children the habits that today’s
meritocracy rewards. This is particularly true of the markers of
upscale Americans – college degrees, graduate degrees, career path, and
the parents’ profession. When their children succeed, their success is
seen as earned. The perception among the well-to-do that everyone could
simply do likewise and achieve the same results is inaccurate. That we
have confused the benefits conferred by wealth with merit says a lot
about how far we are from doing something about the growing gap in
American social mobility, wealth distribution, and educational
opportunity.
If one can remember that ultimately class, privilege and
wealth (money) are passing illusions (because one cannot control or
even possess them except for a very limited time) in the greater scheme
of life, then one can balance their understanding of eternal matters
and act responsibly and morally.
Immigration
& Borders - The borders and ports of the US are particularly
vulnerable, not only to illegal immigration, but also as a route for
terrorists. Guarding them is very costly. For example, on the 1,951 mile
border between Mexico and the US, it takes 10,000 federal
agents to guard it. In 2004, they made 1.14 million arrests. That was a
24% increase from the previous year. Local communities along the border
are being swamped with services they cannot afford and these local
economies are faltering. Federal payments are far short of matching
actual expenses.
Here are some 2005 U.S. Border Patrol statistics:
5,000 - Approximate miles of border with Canada
1,951 - Approximate miles of border with Mexico
95,000 - Approximate miles of U.S. shoreline
29,000 - Approximate number of Border Patrol agents & officers
317 - U.S. ports of entry
210 - Average number of fraudulent documents confiscated daily at U.S.
borders
1 - Average number of travelers detained daily for terrorism or national
security
135 - Average daily arrests at U.S. ports of entry
1,237 - Average number of non-citizens denied entry daily at U.S. ports
of entry
2,313 - Pounds of narcotics seized daily at U.S. ports of entry
For the preservation of a stable democracy, we
have learned since 2001 that it is important and moral to strengthen
the porous borders and security of the United States.
Where people desire to become legal immigrants, they
have a right to do so. Illegal immigration is not moral nor is it
healthy for the American society. However, U.S. immigration laws
are not equal under the law and need legislation.
The idea of having immigrants who do not want to be citizens or
who are unable to be citizens, be issued guest-worker permits, is a good
alternative. Those whose intentions are to remain illegal, should be
deported, because it will eventually destroy the infrastructure of the
U.S. government and significantly increase the risk of terrorism.
Internet Pornography - For a Christian, any kind of
pornography is immoral because it is a sexual perversion and
it does not represent God's values of decency defined in the Bible.
Parents have a responsibility to consider installing
internet screening software on home computers and computers of children
under adult age.
Those with Christian businesses (as well as pastors with
churches) have an equal responsibility to ensure office computers are
not being used by employees for pornography. Software
exists that will allow supervisors to quickly check a computer for
pornographic use.
The internet is a global information
community, so legal precedents are just now 'beginning' to be
established. Who decides - global, national, state, or local law?
Because of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in 1973 in Miller vs.
California, obscenity cases have been judged according to standards
of local communities. The Supreme Court has not ruled on any case that
would establish how to define "local standards", but the U.S. 6th
District Court of Appeals has upheld a 'local' jury conviction of
internet pornography.
Literacy - Greg Toppo reported in
USA TODAY on December 15th, 2005 that that according to a
new federal survey, eleven million U.S. adults — about one in 20 — have
such poor English skills that they can't read a newspaper, understand
the directions on a bottle of pills or, in many cases, carry on a basic
conversation.
Recent immigrants with limited or no English skills
account for most of the group, adult education advocates say, but the
survey suggests that even the average adult has low skills.
The first comprehensive look at adult literacy since a
similar study in 1992, the National Assessment of Adult Literacy,
released in December 2005 in Washington, found that an estimated 30
million adults, or 14%, have "below basic" skills.
The survey concluded that an estimated 11 million adults
are "non-literate" in English, including 4 million who probably can't
speak English and 7 million who can't answer basic written questions.
"We remain concerned that the numbers are so high," said Leslie Burger,
president-elect of the American Library Association. She and others
said the high numbers of non-literate adults is a function of increased
immigration in the past decade. Many new immigrants, advocates say,
could benefit from adult education programs but worry that doing so
could expose them to government scrutiny and even deportation. The
non-literate population includes adults who may be able to read and
write — even at high levels — in their native language.
Education Secretary Margaret Spellings said in December
2005 that, “the federal government will coordinate adult education
efforts through several federal agencies. One adult unable to read is
one too many in America." Jose Velazquez, director of the National
Center for Family Literacy's Hispanic Family Learning Institute, said
education needs to focus more on adults. "This country right now is
focused on No Child Left Behind, but we can clearly see from this data
that many adults are being left behind."
Christians have a moral responsibility to help those who
are illiterate become literate. This would be a tremendous outreach
opportunity for most Christian churches.
Poverty
- There is
no ethical issue larger or more important than poverty. Poor people
describe poverty as the lack of food, medical help, and assets as well
as the powerlessness that stems from dependency on others, and the
helplessness to protect themselves from exploitation and abuse because
of their dependence.
Poverty facts include, but are
not limited to:
Nearly a billion people entered the 21st century unable to read a
book or sign their names.
20% of the population in developed nations consume 86% of the world’s
goods.
In 1960, the 20% of the world’s people in the wealthiest countries
had 30 times the income of the poorest 20% — in 1997, 74 times as much.
An analysis of long-term trends shows the distance between the
richest and poorest countries was about:
-
3
to 1 in 1820
-
11
to 1 in 1913
-
35
to 1 in 1950
-
44
to 1 in 1973
-
72
to 1 in 1992
The developing world now spends $13 on debt repayment for
every $1 it receives in grants.
Of all human rights failures today, those in economic and social
areas affect by far the larger number and are the most widespread
across the world’s nations.
Approximately 790 million people in the developing world are still
chronically undernourished, almost two-thirds of whom reside in Asia
and the Pacific.
According to UNICEF, 30,000 children die each day due to poverty.
They die quietly in some of the poorest villages on earth, far removed
from the scrutiny and the conscience of the world. Being meek and weak
in life makes these dying multitudes even more invisible in death. That
is about 210,000 children each week, or just under 11 million children
under five years of age, each year.
Today, across the world, 1.3 billion people live on less than one
dollar a day; 3 billion live on less than two dollars a day; 1.3
billion have no access to clean water; 3 billion have no access to
sanitation; 2 billion have no access to electricity.
The richest 50 million people in Europe and North America have the
same income as 2.7 billion poor people.
A mere 12 percent of the world’s population uses 85 percent of its
water, and these 12 percent do not live in the Third World.
About 0.13% of the world’s population controlled 25% of the world’s
assets in 2004.
10,000 women in
developing countries die each year giving birth.
200,000 children in developing countries under age five die of
disease each year.
2,000,000 people will die of AIDS
this year in Africa alone.
As many as 115,000,000 children in developing countries are not in
school.
Poverty has many faces and it is a global challenge that
is growing exponentially. Peace with stable political and economic
justice systems have to prevail for systems to develop to support the
poor. Peace provides a way to build a climate for investment, jobs, and
sustainable growth. There is a vital relationship between long-term
economic growth and human development, yet without human development,
economic growth cannot be sustained. Making institutions of government
more accountable to poor people and strengthening the participation of
poor people in political processes and local decision-making
discourages poverty. In addition, reducing poor people's vulnerability
to ill health, crop failures, natural disasters, economic shocks and
violence is an important aid in the relief of the poor.
As more and more poor move to cities, another kind of
poverty is urban poverty. The urban poor live with many deprivations.
Their daily challenges include:
- limited access to employment
opportunities and income,
- inadequate and insecure housing and
services,
- violent and unhealthy environments,
- little or no social protection
mechanisms, and
- limited access to adequate health and
education opportunities.
Urban poverty is not just a collection of characteristics, it is a
dynamic condition of vulnerability or susceptibility to risks that
includes cities and towns of all sizes.
Poverty is associated with the poor, but the growth of
poverty in a global environment still grappling with unstable
governments, military and trade wars, and uncompromising world and
religious views makes all people poor. Every person on the face of
earth is paying for poverty and the cost increases annually.
Victimization - Christians have an
explicit responsibility to minister to the needs of real victims with
heartfelt empathy - discerning victim from opportunist. An opportunist
is a person willing to take immediate advantage,
often unethically, of any circumstance of possible benefit.
Today, there is a bewildering assortment of victims, a
cacophony of angry opportunists vying with one another for victim
status, shouting for redress. Instead of being personally responsible
for a solution to their situation, they project their victimhood upon
others. A Nation of Victims (Charles J. Sykes, St. Martin’s
Press, New York, 1992) is an excellent primer to understand this
movement.
A legitimate victim is someone who, through no fault of
their own, has suffered significant loss of some essential part of
their life. With or without help, a real victim finds a responsible way
to manage life. However, many in today's society seem to increasingly
believe that when one experiences hardship or pain, blame should be
attached somewhere and redress achieved by enshrining irresponsible
behavior as a handicap to achieve legal protection and economic gain.
By virtue of assuming victim status, the perpetrator is excused and
even lionized for taking affirmative action to free himself or herself
from his or her ‘oppressors’. In this social movement, personal
irresponsibility is evolving into a civil right.
It is a Christian duty to promote moral concepts for being
personally accountable. Christians also have an explicit responsibility
to minister to the needs of true victims, but Christians should
minister with their eyes open to the additional responsibility of
discerning true victim from victimological opportunist.
Native
American Rights - The
civil, human, and religious rights for those indigenous
to the Americas
prior to
European colonization, and their descendants in
modern times is an important moral subject. This term encompasses a
large number of distinct tribes, states,
and ethnic groups,
many of them still enduring as political communities.
Federally recognized tribes are considered domestic
dependent nations, with their rights to tribal sovereignty preserved.
Tribal sovereignty refers to tribes' right to govern themselves, define
their own membership, manage tribal property, and regulate tribal
business and domestic relations; it further recognizes the existence of
a government-to-government relationship between such tribes and the
federal government. The federal government has special trust
obligations to protect tribal lands and resources, protect tribal
rights to self-government, and provide services necessary for tribal
survival and advancement.
It is morally correct to preserve the tribal sovereignty
and treaty rights of First Americans.
Racial Profiling - One need not consider
race to the exclusion of all other factors to be engaged in racial
profiling. Rather, a "profile" will often contain a variety of factors:
If one or more of them is race, then it is a racial profile. Profiling
involves giving prominent consideration in security searches to
characteristics that have no direct connection with wrongdoing.
The costs of racial profiling can be great.
- There is an element of inherent
unfairness in singling a person out for suspicion because of a trait
that is generally harmless.
- Such treatment can create a stigma for
members of particular groups.
- Such a stigma can exacerbate any
tendency that a group exhibits to be involved in a particular kind of
wrongdoing. It may reinforce a stereotype that a certain type of person
is "expected" to be a criminal, a drug user, a terrorist, etc.
- Accepting profiling where its use can be
legitimated may open the door to institutionalized discrimination and
the erosion of civil liberties.
It seems unreasonable to visit disproportionate burdens upon one
segment of the population, defined by its racial characteristics. In
part, this is because race is immutable and therefore cannot be altered
to avoid unwanted disparate treatment.
No state law enforcement agency or official should stop,
detain, or search any person when such action is solely
motivated by consideration of race, color, or ethnicity, and the action
would constitute a violation of the civil rights of the person.
Separation of Church
and State - In the
United States separation of church and state is governed by the
Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution and by
legal precedents interpreting that clause. The term, "separation of
church and state", does not appear in the Constitution.
The view that religious and state institutions should be
separate is a wide spectrum, ranging between, but not including, the
extremes which secularize or destroy the church, and theocracy which
absorbs the state into the function of the church. A government that
does not make direct appeal to a specific institution of religion for
the justification of its powers is a secular government. Some
secularists assert that the state should be kept entirely separate from
religion, and that the institutions of religion should be entirely free
from state interference. Some secular governments establish
quasi-religious justifications for their powers, constructed for
ceremonial and rhetorical purposes, but designed for the general
welfare and the benefit of the state, without necessarily favoring any
specific religious group, or conforming to any doctrine other than its
own - an arrangement called civil religion. Other secularists assert
that the state ought to encourage religion by providing exemptions from
taxation, or providing funds for education and charities, including
those that are "faith based", but ought not establish one religion as
the state religion, require religious observance, or legislate dogma.
The legal concept of the union of freedom of belief and
freedom of worship, with the absence of any state-sponsored religion,
originated in the United States. Consequently the US has become a
nation of many religious institutions which flourish under the freedom
of legal protection. The US government, however, does not allow total
unrestricted freedom of religious practice. Federal, state, and local
laws take precedence over the free exercise of religious beliefs, which
means that laws against any crime committed by a religious institution
can be enforced even if such practices are part of a group's religious
beliefs.
Violence Against
Women - Violence against women (and children) is highly immoral. The
places were violence against women are most noticeable in our culture
are in the media, domestic relationships, dating, sexual assault and
abuse, elder abuse, stalking, and abuse of mentally ill women. One
third of women in the United States are abused each year, a major
reason being the commercial exploitation of women by the media which
conditions society to treat women as a commodity (an object of personal
gratification).
It is often hard and confusing for a woman to admit that she is in an
abusive relationship, or to find a way out. There are clear signs to
help you know if you are being abused. If the person you love or live
with does any of these things to you, it’s time to get help:
- monitors what you’re doing all the time
- criticizes you for little things
- constantly accuses you of being
unfaithful
- prevents or discourages you from seeing
friends or family, or going to work or school
- gets angry when drinking alcohol or
using drugs
- controls how you spend your money
- controls your use of needed medicines
- humiliates you in front of others
- destroys your property or things that
you care about
- threatens to hurt you, the children, or
pets, or does cause hurt (by hitting, beating, pushing, shoving,
punching, slapping, kicking, or biting)
- uses or threatens to use a weapon
against you
- forces you to have sex against your will
- blames you for his or her violent
outbursts
To get
immediate help and support call the National Domestic Violence Hotline
at 1-800-799-SAFE (7233) or the National Sexual Assault
Hotline at 1-800-656-4673.
SECULAR &
CHRISTIAN ETHICS
TOP
Business Ethics - Business
ethics is a form of applied ethics that examines ethical rules and
principles within a commercial context; the various moral or ethical
problems that can arise in a business setting; and any special duties
or obligations that apply to persons who are engaged in commerce.
Generally speaking, business ethics is a normative discipline, whereby
particular ethical standards are assumed in corporate policy and
business professionalism - and then applied. In business, ethics is a
moving target as individuals and business cultures are very different
in their perception of values.
Business ethics aren't identical to the philosophy of
business, the branch of philosophy that deals with the philosophical,
political, and ethical underpinnings of business and economics.
Business ethics makes specific judgments about what is
right or wrong, which is to say, it makes claims about what ought to be
done or what ought not to be done. While there are some exceptions,
business ethicists are usually less concerned with justifying ethical
principles, and are more concerned with practical problems and
applications, and any specific duties that might apply to business
relationships.
Contemporary ethical issues in business are accounting and
financial standards, advertising deception, black market sales,
bribery, kickbacks, business intelligence, corporate espionage,
political contributions, corporate governance, corporate crime, price
discrimination, competitive disinformation, discrimination, affirmative
action, sexual harassment, employee issues, professional conduct,
environment, labor, marketing, sales, negotiation techniques, patent
and copyright infringement, planned obsolescence, product liability and
product defects.
Because of the insatiable demand by the American public for low
cost products in the 21st century, two of the fastest growing domestic
business ethics concerns are 1) manufacturing outsourcing, which affects
a wide range of ethical sub-systems; and 2) the building of large
corporate stores in rural towns, which changes generational small
businesses and the character of those towns. In both cases, thousands of
people have lost their vocations, business, and retirement. Both
concerns have a moral and immoral side and both are "fueled" by the
American appetite of consumerism and wealth accumulation.
Christian
Humanism - Christian
humanism is a philosophical
union of Christian
and humanist
principles. It has been traced back to at least the 12th century,
and its proponents claim it to be grounded in the mystery of God present
in history as a human being, Jesus, and
secondly, on "several" teachings of Jesus, as found in the New Testament.
It does not elevate ordinary human beings to the status of deities, nor
does it deny the primacy of God, but rather it seeks to celebrate
humanity and place the 'serving' of one's fellow human beings as one of
the highest Christian duties.
Christian humanism carries within it a potential for
reaching across the metaphysical
divide separating two sides of American culture, in which one side
places moral authority in something transcending the individual, and
the other places moral authority in personal human experience.
Christian humanism is first of all a movement for widened
learning that emerged out of the Renaissance and was brought by devoted
Christians to the study of the philological sources of the Greek New
Testament. This project was undertaken at the time of the Reformation
in the work of Erasmus
(Roman Catholic), Martin Luther
(Augustinian priest who led the Evangelical Reformation), and John Calvin (of the Reformed tradition who believed in studying
the Bible in the original languages).
The broader tradition extends the usage of the term
"Christian humanism” to describe the vocations of Christians active in
the discipline of Humane Letters and who serve on Humanities faculties
of colleges and universities. Many authors of novels and poems (T.S.
Eliot), writing in the Twentieth and Twenty First centuries can be
described as "Christian humanists". Many teachers of literary criticism
also call themselves "Christian humanists," and understand literary
values as including those of gentility, morality, and
faith-perspective. Novelists of the preceding generation identified in
this manner were Dorothy Sayers
(Anglican), Charles Williams
(Anglican), C. S. Lewis
(Anglican), J. R. R. Tolkien
(Roman Catholic), and Flannery O'Connor
(Roman Catholic).
Some Christian
humanists value culture but confess that mankind is fully developed
only as it comes into a right relationship with Christ.
Pelagianism - Pelagianism is very
much a part of the 21st century Christian scene. It is the belief that original sin
did not taint human
nature, and that mortal will is
capable of choosing good or evil without Divine aid.
Thus, Adam's
sin
was "to set a bad example" for his progeny, but his actions did not
have the other consequences imputed to original sin.
Pelagianism views the role of Jesus as
"setting a good example" for the rest of us, thus counteracting Adam's bad
example. In short, a person has full control of his or her life, and
thus full responsibility for his or her own salvation in
addition to full responsibility for every sin.
Pelagianism was condemned by Christianity as a heresy in 431
A.D.
Civil
Religion - The term "civil
religion" was coined by Jean Jacques Rousseau in his treatise, "On the Social
Contract" (1762), which was widely influential among America's
founders. Rousseau frowned on the model of monarchies, in which the
head of state was the head of the church; and he took a negative view
of Christianity itself, because he believed it divided citizens'
loyalties between their civic and spiritual obligations. His solution
was to create a "purely civil profession of faith" that would be
promoted by a nation's leaders.
After the revolutionary period in America, civil religion
went without much examination or commentary until University of
California, Berkeley professor Robert Bellah
revived the subject in his 1967 essay, "Civil Religion in
America."
"In American political theory, sovereignty rests, of
course, with the people; but implicitly, and often explicitly, the
ultimate sovereignty has been attributed to God," Bellah wrote. "This
is the meaning of the motto, 'In God We Trust,' and the inclusion of
the phrase 'under God' in the pledge to the flag."
John
Winthrop is the formal beginning of American civil religion.
Winthrop, a devout Puritan and
leader of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, delivered his famous sermon on
board the Arabella
en route to Massachusetts. In it, he said, "Thus stands the cause
between God and us. We are entered into covenant with Him for this
work. We have taken out a commission. ... For we must consider that we
shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us." -
John Winthrop, "A
Model of Christian Charity," 1630.
Winthrop's Puritan followers looked upon him as a
Moses-like figure, leading them to the promised land. The crossing of
the Atlantic became a metaphor for crossing the Red Sea and the Jordan
River, and Massachusetts would be the new Israel.
This idea has carried forward from colonial times, through
the Revolution, the Civil War and right up to the present. Civil
religion applies the themes spelled out by Winthrop.
Civil
religion contains the following elements:
Myths: Sacred stories, parables and legendary acts of
heroism, such as George Washington’s feats of heroism in the
Revolutionary War and Abraham Lincoln’s sacrifices to preserve the
union.
Rituals: Ceremonies and actions that define communities
and cross denominational lines, such as the honoring of the dead,
memorializing people who died in battle, and saying the Pledge of
Allegiance.
Ethics: Codes of moral conduct, what the Puritans called
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